Labor Migration of Ethiopian Women to the Middle East

As the 15th Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) Summit approaches, it will spotlight critical discussions on migration and development policies, particularly regarding the human rights and protections needed for migrant workers both abroad and within their home countries. This article examines the rising trend of labor migration in Ethiopia, with a specific focus on women seeking economic opportunities in the Middle East. By exploring these issues, we aim to contribute to the ongoing dialogue initiated by the GFMD Summit.

The Middle East has emerged as a primary destination for Ethiopian women, driven by the promise of higher wages and improved living standards. Historically, the trend of labor migration can be traced back to previous regimes that encouraged out-migration as a means of alleviating domestic unemployment and economic hardship (World Bank, 2023). As of recent estimates, approximately 400,000 Ethiopian women are currently working in the Middle East, representing a significant portion of the labor force in this region (IOM, 2022). These women contribute to the Ethiopian economy, with remittances from the Middle East accounting for approximately 4.5% of Ethiopia's GDP as of 2021. However, this migration is fraught with challenges. Many women face inadequate legal protections, gender-specific vulnerabilities, and human rights concerns, which often leave them exposed to exploitation and abuse. Despite the economic benefits of remittances, the risks associated with labor migration highlight the need for stronger protections and support for these workers.

Gender-Specific Drivers of Migration

Several gender-specific factors drive Ethiopian women to migrate for labor. Economic necessity is a primary motivator, as many women seek to support their families back home. Cultural norms often dictate that women are responsible for the financial well-being of their households, which intensifies the pressure to seek employment abroad (Zewdie 2018). Additionally, the promise of higher wages in the Middle East can be enticing, with some women reporting wages that are several times higher than what they could earn in Ethiopia. However, these drivers are accompanied by significant vulnerabilities. Women often face discrimination and limited job opportunities within Ethiopia, leading them to view migration as their best option. The lack of access to education and vocational training further exacerbates these vulnerabilities, as many women are unprepared for the challenges they may face abroad (Meron Zeleke,2019) .

Legal and Policy Frameworks

Ethiopia's commitment to protecting the rights of domestic workers overseas is reflected in its international human rights obligations, labor laws, and bilateral agreements. Ethiopia has ratified several key human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).However, it has notably not ratified the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (CMW), a significant gap in its legal framework (EHRC 2022). Ethiopia joined the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 1923 and has ratified 23 conventions.

To address the specific challenges faced by female domestic workers in the Middle East, Ethiopian policy has evolved to enhance their safety and rights. The government regulates recruitment agencies to ensure transparency and that workers are informed of their rights and working conditions. Following a temporary ban on migration in 2013 due to abuse allegations, the ban was lifted in 2018 with stricter regulations and the introduction of training programs to equip workers with language skills and cultural sensitivity. Ethiopia is actively pursuing bilateral agreements with Middle Eastern countries to protect its workers and improve their conditions. For instance, agreements with Saudi Arabia mandate that Ethiopian workers have their own bank accounts and prohibit salary deductions. Draft deals with countries like Kuwait set maximum working hours, establish minimum wages, and forbid employers from confiscating workers' passports. Despite these efforts, challenges remain. Labor laws in destination countries vary significantly, and many Middle Eastern countries lack comprehensive legal frameworks for domestic workers. The Kafala system, prevalent in countries like Saudi Arabia and Lebanon, ties migrant workers to their employers, limiting their freedom and increasing their vulnerability to abuse (Human Rights Watch 2024). The Ministry of Labor and Skills has established guidelines for licensed recruitment agencies, but weak enforcement leads to the proliferation of unlicensed agencies that exploit women.

Human Rights Concerns

The migration of Ethiopian women to the Middle East raises serious human rights concerns. Reports of exploitation, abuse, and trafficking are alarmingly common. Many women enter into contracts that do not reflect the realities of their working conditions, leaving them susceptible to labor exploitation (Freedom Fund 2022).Instances of physical and sexual abuse by employers have been documented, with victims often lacking the means or support to seek justice.  Furthermore, the lack of legal protection in destination countries exacerbates these issues. The current legal and policy frameworks significantly contribute to the risk of human trafficking for migrant domestic workers, primarily due to inadequate enforcement of labor laws and limited access to safe migration channels. Tied visas restrict workers' rights to change employers or sectors, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation. Furthermore, many domestic workers lack access to justice, effective remedies, and compensation for abuses faced while employed. Despite legislative reforms aimed at improving conditions, the reality remains that the enforcement of workers' rights is often limited or non-existent, perpetuating a cycle of vulnerability and abuse for these individuals (UNOCHR 2025). Labor migration of Ethiopian women to the Middle East is a complex issue shaped by various legal, social, and economic factors.